Skip to main content
Download PDF

Study of extravisual resting-state networks in pituitary adenoma patients with vision restoration

BMC Neuroscience volume 23, Article number: 15 (2022) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Pituitary adenoma (PA) may compress the optic apparatus, resulting in impaired vision. Some patients can experience improved vision rapidly after surgery. During the early period after surgery, however, the change in neurofunction in the extravisual cortex and higher cognitive cortex has yet to be explored.

Objective

Our study focused on the changes in the extravisual resting-state networks in patients with PA after vision restoration.

Methods

We recruited 14 patients with PA who experienced visual improvement after surgery. The functional connectivity (FC) of 6 seeds [auditory cortex (A1), Broca’s area, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) for the default mode network (DMN), right caudal anterior cingulate cortex for the salience network (SN) and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for the executive control network (ECN)] were evaluated. A paired t test was conducted to identify the differences between two groups of patients.

Results

Compared with their preoperative counterparts, patients with PA with improved vision exhibited decreased FC with the right A1 in the left insula lobule, right middle temporal gyrus and left postcentral gyrus and increased FC in the right paracentral lobule; decreased FC with the Broca in the left middle temporal gyrus and increased FC in the left insula lobule and right thalamus; decreased FC with the DMN in the right declive and right precuneus; increased FC in right Brodmann area 17, the left cuneus and the right posterior cingulate; decreased FC with the ECN in the right posterior cingulate, right angular and right precuneus; decreased FC with the SN in the right middle temporal gyrus, right hippocampus, and right precuneus; and increased FC in the right fusiform gyrus, the left lingual gyrus and right Brodmann area 19.

Conclusions

Vision restoration may cause a response of cross-modal plasticity and multisensory systems related to A1 and the Broca. The DMN and SN may be involved in top-down control of the subareas within the visual cortex. The precuneus may be involved in the DMN, ECN and SN simultaneously.

Background

Experience-dependent plasticity gives individuals the ability to shape the visual cortex and maintain its normal function. It is present not only in the developing visual cortex but also in the adult visual cortex [1]. Therapeutic interventions can also trigger plastic changes in the aging visual cortex by restoring vision. Cataract surgery induced use-dependent structural plasticity in the secondary visual cortex (V2) by restoring impaired vision, and activity-dependent cortical plasticity was preserved in the aging visual cortex [2]. The responses to motion in the dorsal visual pathway decreased bilaterally and those to faces in the right ventral visual pathway increased after visual restoration [3]. In patients with Pituitary adenoma (PA) who had improved vision at approximately 3 months after the operation, the results showed that regional homogeneity (ReHo) decreased or increased within the visual cortex [4]. Most of these studies focused on neuroplasticity changes within the visual cortex; visual restoration can lead to plasticity in the subareas of the multisensory and multimodal systems beyond the visual cortex [4].

Cross-modal plasticity refers to the capacity to develop structural and functional changes to execute other intact senses when sensory input is lost. For compensation, the brain develops or strengthens corticocortical or subcorticocortical connections between the deprived and intact sensory regions [5, 6]. The loss of vision from birth triggers many compensatory plastic changes. The occipital cortex can be recruited by other nonvisual inputs because of the cross-modal reorganization of the brain [7]. The primary visual cortex (V1) was found to process auditory signals in persons with low-vision and those who suffered from blindness [7,8,9,10,11]. The visual cortex in humans with congenital blindness can control speech function and semantic processing [12, 13]. The auditory cortex can also process vision in deaf adults [14,15,16]. Although many studies have shown cross-modal plasticity in the loss of vision input, little has been reported about this neuroplastic change in the brain during vision recovery.

The visual cortex in humans with congenital blindness exhibits decreased functional connectivity (FC) with the frontal motor, parietal somatosensory and temporal multisensory areas [17] and increased FC with the inferior frontal triangular areas [18]. Many studies have shown that the visual cortex dynamically interacts with higher cognitive areas [19, 20]. In PA patients with visual impairment, a researcher identified increased FC between the visual cortex and subareas in the default mode network (DMN) and salience network (SN) [21]. Many of these studies exploring the connection between the vision cortex and other higher cognitive areas mainly focused on persons with early blindness or low vision. No study has reported of this neuroplasticity change in the brain after vision restoration thus far. The changes in the functional connection between the vision cortex and higher cognitive areas in patients with vision recovery remain unclear.

PA may compress the optic apparatus and cause impaired vision. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery is minimally invasive and does not damage the visual cortex or neighboring areas. Some patients can experience improved vision rapidly after surgery. During the early period following surgery, however, the change in neurofunction in the extravisual cortex and higher cognitive cortex has yet to be explored. Therefore, we enrolled patients with PA with improved vision at approximately 3 days after a transsphenoidal operation. Our study focused on the changes in the extravisual resting-state networks in patients with PA after vision restoration. Furthermore, we aimed to explore the plasticity of the auditory, language and higher cognitive networks that extend beyond the visual cortex after vision improvement.

Materials and methods

Subjects

Fourteen patients with PA with visual damage were recruited in this study. All patients underwent endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery and had improved vision rapidly after the surgery. The inclusion criteria were as follows: age varied between 18 and 65 years; corrected vision acuity was below 1.0 (20/20) before the operation; no ophthalmologic diseases or other intracranial lesions that disturbed the visual apparatus or cortex were found; vision recovery at 3 days after surgery (corrected vision acuity improved by at least 0.2) was needed; and no severe electrolyte imbalance, hypopituitarism or other complications occurred after surgery. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the hospital. Written informed consent was obtained from the patients.

Data acquisition

The patients were scanned one day preoperatively and three days postoperatively on a 1.5 T MR system (Espree, Siemens Medical Solution, Erlangen, Germany) in the diagnostic room of the iMRI brain suite [22]. We used a foam pad to minimize head movement and earplugs to reduce surrounding noise during scanning. During the resting-state functional MRI (RS-fMRI) scan, we told the patients to remain motionless and keep their eyes closed and think about nothing. RS-fMRI data were acquired using an echo-planar image pulse sequence [26 axial slices, slice thickness = 4.5 mm, flip angle = 90°, and field of view (FOV) = 224 × 224 mm, repetition time = 2000 ms and echo time = 45 ms]. A T1-weighted sagittal anatomical image was also obtained using a gradient echo sequence (192 slices, slice thickness = 1 mm, inversion time = 1100 ms, flip angle = 15°, number of excitations = 1, FOV = 256 × 256 mm, repetition time = 1970 ms, and echo time = 2.39 ms).

Clinical and neuro-ophthalmologic assessments

The cognition of all patients was evaluated with a Mini-Mental State Examination before surgery. The ophthalmologic examination was performed within 2 days prior to the operation and at approximately 3 days after the operation. The best-corrected visual acuity was measured for distance with the E chart and reported on the decimal scale. The ophthalmic fundus examination was made with a nonmydriatic retinal camera (Topcon, Japan).

Data preprocessing

The RS-fMRI data were preprocessed with SPM8 (http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm) and a pipeline analysis toolbox, DPARSF (http://www.restfmri.net/) [23]. The first ten volumes were deleted to stabilize the fMRI signal and allow the participants time to adapt to the circumstances. The subsequent data processes consisted of slice timing correction and head motion correction (head motion parameters were < 3 mm in translation and < 3° in rotation). To further reduce the effects of head motion on the estimates of RS activity, we censored volumes within each participant’s fMRI time series that were associated with sudden head motion. For each participant, the fMRI volumes were censored if the framewise displacement of the head position, which was calculated as the sum of the absolute values of the derivatives of the realignment estimates, was greater than 0.5. The data were then normalized (T1-weighted image-based spatial normalization to the Montreal Neurological Institute space). After smoothing, the linear trend of time courses was removed, and then temporal bandpass filtering (0.01–0.08 Hz) was performed.

FC and statistical analysis

Regions of interest (ROIs) were taken from the literature [24,25,26,27]. They were defined as 6-mm radius spheres in both hemispheres. We selected 6 seeds to assess FC (Table 1). These seeds were selected within the extravisual area [auditory cortex (A1), Broca’s area, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)/precuneus for the DMN, right caudal anterior cingulate cortex for the SN and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for the executive control network (ECN)].

Table 1 Regions of interest (ROIs)
Full size table

Before FC calculation, nonneuronal-related covariates, including six parameters of head motion correction, the average time courses of the whole brain (global mean signal), the average time courses within the white matter mask, and the average time courses within the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) mask, were removed from the preprocessed data by linear regression analysis. Then, the images were smoothed with a 6-mm FWHM Gaussian kernel. We computed the FC between each seed region and each voxel within the whole-brain mask. To improve data normality, the individual FC maps were transformed to z-maps using Fisher’s z-transformation. The z values were entered into a voxelwise paired t test to determine the brain regions that presented significant differences in correlation between the pre- and postoperation groups with separate seed regions. The AlphaSim method, which was implemented in REST, was used to correct for multiple comparisons. The corrected value of p < 0.05 (uncorrected p < 0.001 and a minimum of 40 voxels in a cluster) was chosen as the threshold.

Results

Studied population

Fourteen patients (male/female 7:7) were included in the final analyses. The mean age was 46.3 years (range 24–62 years). The main demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 The main demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients
Full size table

RS-fMRI analysis

Differences in FC after surgery (auditory ROIs)

Compared with that of their preoperative counterparts, decreased FC with right A1 was identified in the left insula lobule, right middle temporal gyrus and left postcentral gyrus (Fig. 1, Table 3). Increased FC with right A1 was identified in the right paracentral lobule (Fig. 1, Table 3).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Brain areas exhibited significantly different FCs with the right A1 in PAs (postoperative vs preoperative)

Full size image
Table 3 Group differences in FC (postoperative vs. preoperative)
Full size table

Differences in FC after surgery (language ROIs)

Compared with that of their preoperative counterparts, decreased FC with the Broca was identified in the left middle temporal gyrus (Fig. 2, Table 3). In addition, compared with preoperative FC, increased FC with the Broca was identified in the left insula lobule and right thalamus (Fig. 2, Table 3).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Brain areas exhibited significantly different FCs with the broca in PAs (postoperative vs preoperative)

Full size image

Differences in FC after surgery (DMN ROIs)

Compared with that of their preoperative counterparts, decreased FC with the DMN was identified in the right declive, left cingulate gyrus and right precuneus (Fig. 3, Table 3). additionally, compared with preoperative FC, increased FC with the DMN was identified in right Brodmann area 17, the left cuneus and the right posterior cingulate/BA 30 (Fig. 3, Table 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Brain areas exhibited significantly different FCs with the DMN in PAs (postoperative vs preoperative)

Full size image

Differences in FC after surgery (ECN ROIs)

Compared with that of their preoperative counterparts, decreased FC with the ECN was identified in the right posterior cingulate, right angular and right precuneus (Fig. 4, Table 3).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Brain areas exhibited significantly different FCs with the ECN in PAs (postoperative vs preoperative)

Full size image

Differences in FC after surgery (SN ROIs)

Compared with that of their preoperative counterparts, decreased FC with SN was identified in the right middle temporal gyrus, right hippocampus, right corpus callosum and right precuneus (Fig. 5, Table 3). Moreover, compared with preoperative FC, increased FC with the SN was identified in the right fusiform gyrus, the left lingual gyrus/BA 19 and right Brodmann area 19 (Fig. 5, Table 3).

Fig. 5
figure 5

Brain areas exhibited significantly different FCs with the SN in PAs (postoperative vs preoperative)

Full size image

Discussion

RS-fMRI is a noninvasive measure of neuronal function when patients are at rest [28, 29]. FC is widely used in RS-fMRI studies. FC refers to the temporal correlation between spatially remote neurophysiological events [30]. FC analyses can offer high spatial resolution and high spatial specificity relative to where the corresponding changes in neurophysiological signals take place [31]. We investigated FC in extravisual resting-state networks in patients with pituitary adenoma with vision restoration using a seed-based approach with a priori defined ROIs. Our data revealed a mixture of increases and decreases in FC in the brain network.

Our data showed decreased FC with the right A1 in the right middle temporal gyrus (MT). The results may imply that there was a coexisting neural connection between the right A1 and MT, and the FC decreased when vision was restored. The middle temporal complex (MT/MST) is an area specialized for the procession of motion vision [32,33,34,35]. Recent studies also show that the visual motion area MT +/V5 responds to auditory motion [36, 37]. In sighted individuals, MT/MST responds to motion perception in the visual modality but not to sound [35]. In contrast, the MT/MST areas of individuals with congenital blindness responds to auditory and tactile motion [38]. Therefore, blindness can cause a multimodal response in the MT/MST region. In individuals who afflicted by early blindness who achieved partial visual restoration in adulthood, auditory motion responses were observed within the MT/V5 area. Therefore, Saenz et al. [36] concluded that auditory and visual responses coexist after vision restoration. Jiang et al. [10] showed that auditory motion responses increased in the MT area and decreased in the right planum temporale in sight-recovery subjects. Therefore, the authors proposed that the cortical plasticity caused by early blindness is permanent and can persist even after visual restoration. Neuroplasticity may have an adaptive or maladaptive effect on the restoration of the deprived sense [9]. Strelnikov et al. [39] showed that synergy between the auditory and visual areas plays a key role in cross-modal plasticity. Alink et al. [40] showed that the auditory motion complex and the visual motion area hMT/V5 + are involved in the generation of a cross-modal dynamic capture illusion and that audiovisual integration occurs in early motion areas. Our results may imply that coexisting neural connections between the right A1 and MT + decreased after vision restoration. To the best of our knowledge, we did not find a possible reason for the decreased FC of the right A1 and MT + , and more fMRI studies are needed in the future.

It is widely accepted that the occipital cortex of humans who are blind is involved in language processing [13]. Braille reading in individuals who are blind triggers a large-scale network of the brain cortex, including posterior and medial occipital areas, fusiform gyrus, area hMT +, inferior temporal gyrus, inferior frontal, prefrontal, intraparietal sulcus, and somatosensory motor areas [41]. In subjects with congenital blindness, the increased connectivity between the visual cortex and Broca’s area might be related to the role of the occipital cortex in semantic processing [13, 42]. Deen et al. [42] proposed that there is coactivation between Broca’s area and most of the occipital cortex. Ricciardi et al. [38] showed that the increased FC between Broca’s area and hMT + might be related to the role of tactile flow processing in Braille reading. There are two explanations for the mechanisms of cross-modal plasticity observed in the occipital cortex. One is that cross-modal plasticity arises through enhancing existing bottom-up sensory connections from sensory areas, and sensory thalamic input during development can reorganize cortical function. The other is that cross-modal plasticity in adults who are blind is activated by top-down feedback from higher-order polymodal and amodal cortices [13, 43]. Our results may imply that FC between the Broca and the left middle temporal gyrus decreased after visual restoration. However, the mechanism resulting in functional alterations in the Broca after vision restoration remains to be elucidated, and more fMRI studies are needed in the future.

Our data show that decreased FC with the right A1 was identified in the left insula lobule and left postcentral gyrus and increased FC with the right A1 was identified in the right paracentral lobule. Increased FC with the Broca was identified in the left insula lobule and right thalamus. The left insula lobule, left postcentral gyrus, right paracentral lobule, and right thalamus are subareas of the multisensory system [44]. The multisensory system at the cortical locations consists of the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe and insula. The multisensory system at subcortical locations involves the superior colliculus and basal ganglia [44, 45]. Insular lesions can result in a multisensory deficiency [46]. The anterior insula has connections with the orbital-frontal lobe, thalamus and limbic lobe. The posterior insula has connections with the frontal, temporal, parietal lobe and thalamus [47, 48]. The thalamus plays a crucial role in multisensory integration processes [49]. It has been accepted that early sensory experience plays an important role in shaping the development of the neural circuitry underlying multisensory processes. In lid-sutured monkeys, studies have shown that visual and multisensory areas become less responsive to visual stimulation [50,51,52]. In cats reared in darkness, studies have shown that multisensory neurons at cortical and subcortical sites cannot integrate cross-modal inputs [53, 54]. In individuals with congenital dense bilateral cataracts, studies have revealed that their ability to integrate more complex cross-modal stimuli (e.g., speech input) is impaired [55, 56], despite a gain in reaction times for simple cross-modal stimuli (e.g., simultaneously presented light flashes and noise bursts) compared to their unimodal counterparts [57]. Some studies have proposed that superior temporal areas (particularly the superior temporal sulcus) are critical sites for multisensory audio-visual integration [58, 59]. Calvert et al. [58] showed that multisensory audio-visual integration was within extrastriate visual areas. When the brain receives streams of information from multiple sensory modalities, visual information is more frequently preferentially processed than the other sensory modalities. Multisensory information competes for preferential access to consciousness. In terms of multisensory competition, neural representations in the dominant sensory modality may suppress neural representations in the dominated modalities. Weissman et al. [60] reported that enhanced prestimulus activity in the prefrontal cortex and decreased prestimulus activity in the DMN predicted better task performance. Some connectivity studies on visual and auditory activity have shown that sensory systems have dynamic interactions with the prefrontal cortex, the sensorimotor cortex, and the DMN during multisensory competition. The mechanism of multisensory competition is still unclear. One theory that describes this compensation is that top-down control from the prefrontal cortex dominates the outcome of multisensory competition. The other is that the bottom-up processing in the sensory systems decides the outcome. Huang et al. [61] revealed that visual dominance originated from top-down control, while auditory dominance originated from altered sensory processing in the auditory cortex. Our data show that the functional connection between the right A1 and left insula lobule and between the right A1 and left postcentral gyrus decreased and that between the right A1 and right paracentral lobule increased. The functional connection between the Broca and the left insula lobule and right thalamus increased. The study indicates that visual restoration leads to different multisensory interactions within the cortical and subcortical regions, but the mechanism is not clear.

The DMN involves the PCC, medial prefrontal cortex and lateral parietal cortex. The DMN is activated in the resting condition and is deactivated in the task condition. This network plays a role in the detection and monitoring of environmental events and internal mentation [62,63,64]. Our data show that FC between the DMN and right Brodmann area 17 and the left cuneus increased. When the DMN detects decreased visual cortical activity, decreased deactivation in the DMN may likely occur. Strong DMN activity is related to reduced visual cortical excitability [65]. Our previous data showed that FC decreased in the visual cortex after vision recovery (results not presented in the paper), and this study revealed decreased FC with right A1 and Broca in the right middle temporal gyrus. Therefore, it may be appropriate to propose that decreased visual cortex activity in some way incurs decreased DMN deactivation (stronger activity). It was also assumed that the compensatory mechanism arose as feedback connections by the top-down influences of the DMN. However, the mechanism resulting in functional alterations in the DMN after vision restoration remains to be elucidated. We also found a decrease in the FC between the DMN and the cerebellum (right declive). The cerebellum interacts with the frontal eye fields [66, 67] and participates in the control of eye movement [68, 69]. Our data propose that vision improvement leads to decreased function of the cerebellum with DMN.

The ECN is shown to be activated when fMRI tasks include executive functions. The ECN includes the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex [70,71,72]. This network is activated when a task requires cognitive control and working memory [27]. Our data show that decreased FC with the ECN was identified in the right posterior cingulate, right angular and right precuneus after vison restoration. The posterior cingulate/precuneus is a very important part of the DMN. The angular gyrus (AG) plays a role in language and semantic processing [73, 74], spatial attention and orienting [75]. The AG was identified as an important parietal node of the DMN [76,77,78] and was reported to have task-related deactivations [79]. Therefore, this result may indicate that there is contrary activity in the DMN and CEN after vision recovery. Consistent with our results, some studies show that the DMN and CEN have antagonistic activity in the resting state [72]. Chen et al. [80] found that the ECN has inhibitory control over the DMN. Bauer et al. [81] showed that the ECN negatively regulates the DMN. Whitfield-Gabrieli et al. [82] reported that the anticorrelations between the DMN and ECN are associated with cognitive hyperactivity, such as complex working memory.

The SN constitutes the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, bilateral insula and presupplementary motor area. This network has a key role in regulating the dynamic changes in other networks. The SN has a function in the commencement of control of cognition processes [83,84,85]. Our data show that increased FC with the SN was identified in the right fusiform gyrus, the left lingual gyrus/BA 19 and right Brodmann area 19. The results indicate that vision restoration leads to enhanced FC of the visual cortex with the SN. There is an anatomical connection between the visual cortex and the SN [86]. The SN was found to be involved in top-down attentional control [87, 88]. Our previous data showed that FC decreased within the visual cortex after vision recovery (results not presented in the paper). This study revealed decreased FC with the right A1, Broca and SN in the right middle temporal gyrus. Therefore, decreased visual stimulation may result in enhanced FC between the visual system and the SN. Our data show decreased FC with the SN in the right hippocampus, right corpus callosum and right precuneus. The hippocampus is critical for learning, memory and cognition. The hippocampal region has been considered part of the DMN [77, 89]. The precuneus was a key node of the DMN. Our data show that FC between the DMN and right Brodmann area 17 and between the DMN and the left cuneus increased. Studies have reported that the SN drives the DMN during both the resting state and tasks in healthy younger populations [90, 91]. Therefore, the increased activity of the DMN may lead to a decreased influence of the SN on the DMN itself. Taken together, it is reasonable to posit that when decreased FC within the visual cortex is detected, higher than normal SN and DMN activity is initiated to achieve the compensatory mechanism as feedback connection by top-down influences, and then the correspondingly decreased SN activity on DMN occurs in the brain network.

Our data show that decreased FC with the DMN, ECN and SN was simultaneously identified in the right precuneus. The precuneus is an area with high metabolic rates compared to that of other networks during rest. The precuneus is widely accepted as the important structure in the DMN, as it assists in various behavioral functions [92,93,94]. Many studies have shown that the precuneus plays a vital role in autobiographical memory retrieval, emotional stimulus processing and reward outcome monitoring [95,96,97]. Some studies have shown that the SN plays a role in the dynamic switching of antagonistic activity between the DMN and CEN in cognitively normal young brains [91, 98, 99]. Multiple experiments have shown that the DMN, SN, and CEN are associated with mindfulness [100,101,102] and interact with each other [100, 103]. During the active state of meditation, the between-network connectivity of the DMN, CEN and SN is increased [104, 105]. Our results imply that the precuneus may be involved in three networks and relate to the between-network connectivity of the DMN, CEN and SN after visual restoration, but the relevant mechanism is not clear.

Some limitations of this study should be considered. First, the number of subjects in the current study was small, and more participants will be recruited in future studies. Second, most pituitary patients lose visual acuity and fields, and after surgery, the visual acuity and fields may improve. In our study, we only selected visual acuity because it was easy to measure and compare before and after the participants underwent their operation, but it was difficult to quantify the visual field. In future studies, we will evaluate more details on the nature and extent of visual loss and its recovery. Third, testing for changes in visual function with resting-state fMRI may not be the most useful/direct way, but it is convenient to perform in patients pre- and postoperatively. Visual stimuli can be used to directly assess visual responses in fMRI experiments. In future studies, we will combine the two approaches.

Conclusions

In conclusion, we show the changes in extravisual resting-state networks in patients with pituitary adenoma (PA) with visual restoration after transsphenoidal surgery. Vision restoration may cause a cross-modal plasticity response and lead to the development of the multisensory system related to the A1 and Broca. The DMN and SN may be involved in top-down control of the subareas within the visual cortex. The ECN and SN have decreased FC with the DMN. The precuneus may be involved in the DMN, ECN and SN simultaneously after visual restoration. However, more studies are needed to explore the mechanism of neural plasticity in extravisual resting-state networks, as well as the mechanism of the interaction between the intra- and extravisual networks in patients with specific visual diseases.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

FC:

Functional connectivity

A1:

Auditory cortex

PCC:

Posterior cingulate cortex

DMN:

Default mode network

SN:

Salience network

ECN:

Executive control network

ReHo:

Regional homogeneity

PA:

Pituitary adenoma

ROIs:

Regions of interest

FOV:

Field of view

RS-fMRI:

Resting-state functional MRI

CSF:

Cerebral spinal fluid

MT:

Middle temporal gyrus

MT/MST:

Middle temporal complex

References

  1. Chen J, Yamahachi H, Gilbert CD. Experience-dependent gene expression in adult visual cortex. Cereb Cortex. 2010;20:650–60. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Lou AR, Madsen KH, Julian HO, Toft PB, Kjaer TW, Paulson OB, et al. Postoperative increase in grey matter volume in visual cortex after unilateral cataract surgery. Acta Ophthalmol. 2013;91:58–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-3768.2011.02304.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Giulia D, Franco L, Mona HD, Armonda B, Olivor C. Recovering sight in adulthood leads to rapid neurofunctional reorganization of visual functions. J Vis. 2012;12:1279. https://doi.org/10.1167/12.9.1279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Qian HY, Wang XC, Wang ZY, Wang ZM, Liu PN, Wang ZC. Changes in the vision-related resting-state network in pituitary adenoma patients after vision improvement. Chin Med J. 2015;128:1171–6. https://doi.org/10.4103/0366-6999.156106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Klinge C, Eippert F, Roder B, Buchel C. Corticocortical connections mediate primary visual cortex responses to auditory stimulation in the blind. J Neurosci. 2010;30:12798–805. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2384-10.2010.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Beer AL, Plank T, Greenlee MW. Diffusion tensor imaging shows white matter tracts between human auditory and visual cortex. Exp Brain Res. 2011;213:299–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-011-2715-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Kupers R, Ptito M. Compensatory plasticity and cross-modal reorganization following early visual deprivation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;41:36–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.08.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Watkins KE, Shakespeare TJ, O’Donoghue MC, Alexander I, Ragge N, Cowey A, Bridge H. Early auditory processing in area V5/MT+ of the congenitally blind brain. J Neurosci. 2013;33:18242–6. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2546-13.2013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Heimler B, Weiszm N, Collignonm O. Revisiting the adaptive and maladaptive effects of crossmodal plasticity. Neuroscience. 2014;283:44–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.08.003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Jiang F, Stecker GC, Boynton GM, Fine I. Early blindness results in developmental plasticity for auditory motion processing within auditory and occipital cortex. Front Hum Neurosci. 2016;10:324. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00324.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Dormal G, Rezk M, Yakobov E, Lepore F, Collignon O. Auditory motion in the sighted and blind: early visual deprivation triggers a large-scale imbalance between auditory and “visual” brain regions. Neuroimage. 2016;134:630–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Roder B, Stock O, Bien S, Neville H, Rosler F. Speech processing activates visual cortex in congenitally blind humans. Eur J Neurosci. 2002;16:930–6. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.2002.02147.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Bedny M, Pascual-Leone A, Dodell-Feder D, Fedorenko E, Saxe R. Language processing in the occipital cortex of congenitally blind adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:4429–34. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014818108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Campbell J, Sharma A. Cross-modal re-organization in adults with early stage hearing loss. PLoS ONE. 2014;9: e90594. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090594.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Stropahl M, Plotz K, Schonfeld R, Lenarz T, Sandmann P, Yovel G, Debener S. Cross-modal reorganization in cochlear implant users: auditory cortex contributes to visual face processing. Neuroimage. 2015;121:159–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.062.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Anderson CA, Wiggins IM, Kitterick PT, Hartley DEH. Adaptive benefit of cross-modal plasticity following cochlear implantation in deaf adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2017;114:10256–61. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704785114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Yu C, Liu Y, Li J, Zhou Y, Wang K, Tian L, Li K. Altered functional connectivity of primary visual cortex in early blindness. Hum Brain Mapp. 2008;29:533–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20420.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Liu L, Yu CS, Liang M, Li J, Tian L, Zhou Y, Jiang T. Whole brain functional connectivity in the early blind. Brain. 2007;130:2085–96. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awm121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Wen X, Liu Y, Yao L, Ding M. Top-down regulation of default mode activity in spatial visual attention. J Neurosci. 2013;33:6444–53. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4939-12.2013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Mayhew SD, Ostwald D, Porcaro C, Bagshaw AP. Spontaneous EEG alpha oscillation interacts with positive and negative BOLD responses in the visual-auditory cortices and default-mode network. Neuroimage. 2013;76:362–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.02.070.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Qian H, Wang X, Wang Z, Wang Z, Liu P. Altered vision-related resting-state activity in pituitary adenoma patients with visual damage. PLoS ONE. 2016;11: e0160119. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160119.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Chen X, Xu BN, Meng X, Zhang J, Yu XG, Zhou DB. Dual-room 1.5-T intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging suite with a movable magnet: implementa-tion and preliminary experience. Neurosurg Rev. 2012;35:95–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10143-011-0336-3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Yan CG, Zang YF. DPARSF: A MATLAB Toolbox for “Pipeline” data analysis of resting-state fMRI. Front Syst Neurosci. 2010;4:13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2010.00013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Rademacher J, Morosan P, Schormann T, Schleicher A, Werner C, Freund HJ, Zilles K. Probabilistic mapping and volume measurement of human primary auditory cortex. Neuroimage. 2001;13:669–83. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2000.0714.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Binkofski F, Amunts K, Stephan KM, Posse S, Schormann T, Freund HJ, Seitz RJ. Broca’s region subserves imagery of motion: a combined cytoarchitectonic and fMRI study. Hum Brain Mapp. 2000;11:273–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0193(200012)11:4%3c273::AID-HBM40%3e3.0.CO;2-0.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Laird AR, Eickhoff SB, Li K, Robin DA, Glahn DC, Fox PT. Investigating the functional heterogeneity of the default mode network using coordinate-based meta-analytic modeling. J Neurosci. 2009;29:14496–505. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4004-09.2009.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Seeley WW, Menon V, Schatzberg AF, Keller J, Glover GH, Kenna H, Greicius MD. Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J Neurosci. 2007;27:2349–56. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Fox MD, Raichle ME. Spontaneous fluctuations in brain activity observed with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2007;8:700–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pillemer S, Holtzer R, Blumen HM. Functional connectivity associated with social networks in older adults: a resting-state fMRI study. Soc Neurosci. 2017;12:242–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2016.1176599.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RS. Functional connectivity: the principal-component analysis of large (PET) data sets. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1993;13:5–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.1993.4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Shmuel A, Yacoub E, Chaimow D, Logothetis NK, Ugurbil K. Spatio-temporal point-spread function of fMRI signal in human gray matter at 7 Tesla. Neuroimage. 2007;35:539–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.12.030.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Dubner R, Zeki SM. Response properties and receptive fields of cells in an anatomically defined region of the superior temporal sulcus in the monkey. Brain Res. 1971;35:528–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(71)90494-x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Tootell RB, Reppas JB, Kwong KK, Malach R, Born RT, Brady TJ, Belliveau JW. Functional analysis of human MT and related visual cortical areas using magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosci. 1995;15:3215–30. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-04-03215.1995.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. de Jong BM, Shipp S, Skidmore B, Frackowiak RS, Zeki S. The cerebral activity related to the visual perception of forward motion in depth. Brain. 1994;117:1039–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.050.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Zihl J, von Cramon D, Mai N. Selective disturbance of movement vision after bilateral brain damage. Brain. 1983;106:313–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/106.2.313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Saenz M, Lewis LB, Huth AG, Fine I, Koch C. Visual motion area MT+/V5 responds to auditory motion in human sight-recovery subjects. J Neurosci. 2008;28:5141–8. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0803-08.2008.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Wolbers T, Zahorik P, Giudice NA. Decoding the direction of auditory motion in blind humans. Neuroimage. 2010;56:681–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.04.266.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Ricciardi E, Vanello N, Sani L, Gentili C, Scilingo EP, Landini L, Pietrini P. The effect of visual experience on the development of functional architecture in hMT+. Cereb Cortex. 2007;17:2933–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Strelnikov K, Rouger J, Demonet JF, Lagleyre S, Fraysse B, Deguine O, Barone P. Visual activity predicts auditory recover from deafness after adult cochlear implantation. Brain. 2013;136:3682–95. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Alink A, Singer W, Muckli L. Capture of auditory motion by vision is represented by an activation shift from auditory to visual motion cortex. J Neurosci. 2008;28:2690–7. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2980-07.2008.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Burton H, Snyder AZ, Conturo TE, Akbudak E, Ollinger JM, Raichle ME. Adaptive changes in early and late blind: a fMRI study of braille reading. J Neurophysiol. 2002;87:589–607. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00129.2002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Deen B, Saxe R, Bedny M. Occipital cortex of blind individuals is functionally coupled with executive control areas of frontal cortex. J Cogn Neurosci. 2015;27:1633–47. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bedny M, Konkle T, Pelphrey KA, Saxe R, Pascual-Leone A. Sensitive period for a multimodal response in human visual motion area MT/MST. Curr Biol. 2010;20:1900–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2010.09.044.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Cappe C, Rouiller EM, Barone P. Multisensory anatomical pathways. Hear Res. 2009;258:28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2009.04.017.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Brown LL, Schneider JS, Lidsky TI. Sensory and cognitive functions of the basal ganglia. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1997;7:157–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0959-4388(97)80003-7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Berthier M, Starkstein S, Leiguarda R. Behavioral effects of damage to the right insula and surrounding regions. Cortex. 1987;23:673–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(87)80057-6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Chen T, Michels L, Supekar K, Kochalka J, Ryali S, Menon V. Role of the anterior insular cortex in integrative causal signaling during multisensory auditory-visual attention. Eur J Neurosci. 2015;41:264–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.12764.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Frank SM, Baumann O, Mattingley JB, Greenlee MW. Vestibular and visual responses in human posterior insular cortex. J Neurophysiol. 2014;112:2481–91. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00078.2014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Tyll S, Budinger E, Noesselt T. Thalamic influences on multisensory integration. Commun Integr Biol. 2011;4:378–81. https://doi.org/10.4161/cib.4.4.15222.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Hyvärinen J, Carlson S, Hyvärinen L. Early visual deprivation alters modality of neuronal responses in area 19 of monkey cortex. Neurosci Lett. 1981;26:239–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(81)90139-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Hyvärinen J, Hyvärinen L, Linnankoski I. Modification of parietal association cortex and functional blindness after binocular deprivation in young monkeys. Exp Brain Res. 1981;42:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00235723.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Carlson S, Pertovaara A, Tanila H. Late effects of early binocular visual deprivation on the function of Broadmann’s area 7 of monkeys (Macaca arctoides). Dev Brain Res. 1987;33:101–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-3806(87)90180-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Wallace MT, Perrault TJ Jr, Hairston D, Stein BE. Visual experience is necessary for the development of multisensory integration. J Neurosci. 2004;24:9580–4. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2535-04.2004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Carriere BR, Royal DW, Perrault TJ Jr, Morrison SP, Vaughan JW, Stein BE, Wallace MT. Visual deprivation alters the development of cortical multisensory integration. J Neuropsysiol. 2007;98:2858–67. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00587.2007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Putzar L, Goerendt I, Lange K, Rösler F, Röder B. Early visual deprivation impairs multisensory interactions in humans. Nat Neurosci. 2007;10:1243–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1978.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Putzar L, Hötting K, Röder B. Early visual deprivation affects the development of face recognition and of audio-visual speech perception. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2010;28:251–7. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0526.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Putzar L, Gondan M, Röder B. Basic multisensory functions can be acquired after congenital visual pattern deprivation in humans. Dev Neuropsychol. 2012;37:697–711. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2012.696756.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Calvert GA, Campbell R, Brammer MJ. Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging of crossmodal binding in the human heteromodal cortex. Curr Biol. 2000;10:649–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00513-3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Stevenson RA, James TW. Audiovisual integration in human superior temporal sulcus: inverse effectiveness and the neural processing of speech and object recognition. Neuroimage. 2009;44:1210–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.09.034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Weissman DH, Roberts KC, Visscher KM, Woldorff MG. The neural bases of momentary lapses in attention. Nat Neurosci. 2006;9:971–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1727.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Huang S, Li Y, Zhang W, Zhang B, Liu X, Mo L, Chen Q. Multisensory competition is modulated by sensory pathway interactions with fronto-sensorimotor and default-mode network regions. J Neurosci. 2015;35:9064–77. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3760-14.2015.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Gusnard DA, Raichle ME, Raichle ME. Searching for a baseline: functional imaging and the resting human brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001;2:685–94. https://doi.org/10.1038/35094500.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sherman LE, Rudie JD, Pfeifer JH, Masten CL, McNealy K, Dapretto M. Development of the default mode and central executive networks across early adolescence: a longitudinal study. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2014;10:148–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2014.08.002.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Blakemore S-J. The social brain in adolescence. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008;9:267–77. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2353.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Mounder J, Liu Y, Huang H, Ding M. Coupling between visual alpha oscillations and default mode activity. Neuroimage. 2013;68:112–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.058.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Middleton FA, Strick PL. Cerebellar projections to the prefrontal cortex of the primate. J Neurosci. 2001;21:700–12. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-02-00700.2001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Kelly RM, Strick PL. Cerebellar loops with motor cortex and prefrontal cortex of a nonhuman primate. J Neurosci. 2003;23:8432–44. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-23-08432.2003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Hayakawa Y, Nakajima T, Takagi M, Fukuhara N, Abe H. Human cerebellar activation in relation to saccadic eye movements: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Ophthalmologica. 2002;216:399–405. https://doi.org/10.1159/000067551.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Nitta T, Akao T, Kurkin S, Fukushima K. Involvement of the cerebellar dorsal vermis in vergence eye movements in monkeys. Cereb Cortex. 2008;18:1042–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Binder JR, Frost JA, Hammeke TA, Bellgowan PS, Rao SM, Cox RW. Conceptual processing during the conscious resting state. A functional MRI study. J Cogn Neurosci. 1999;11:80–95. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892999563265.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Shulman GL, Corbetta M, Fiez JA, Buckner RL, Miezin FM, Raichle ME, Petersen SE. Searching for activations that generalize over tasks. Hum Brain Mapp. 1997;5:317–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0193(1997)5:4%3c317::AID-HBM19%3e3.0.CO;2-A.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Corbetta M, Van Essen DC, Raichle ME. The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005;102:9673–8. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0504136102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Binder JR, Desai RH, Graves WW, Conant LL. Where is the semantic system? A critical review and meta-analysis of 120 functional neuroimaging studies. Cereb Cortex. 2009;19:2767–96. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp055.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Brownsett SL, Wise RJ. The contribution of the parietal lobes to speaking and writing. Cereb Cortex. 2009;20:517–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp120.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Chambers CD, Payne JM, Stokes MG, Mattingley JB. Fast and slow parietal pathways mediate spatial attention. Nat Neurosci. 2004;7:217–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1203.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL. A default mode of brain function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98:676–82. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.98.2.676.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Greicius MD, Krasnow B, Reiss AL, Menon V. Functional connectivity in the resting brain: a network analysis of the default mode hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:253–8. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0135058100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Uddin LQ, Kelly AM, Biswal BB, Castellanos F, Milham MP. Functional connectivity of default mode network components: correlation, anticorrelation, and causality. Hum Brain Mapp. 2009;30:625–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wu SS, Chan TT, Majid A, Caspers S, Eickhoff SB, Menon V. Functional heterogeneity of inferior parietal cortex during mathematical cognition assessed with cytoarchitectonic probability maps. Cereb Cortex. 2009;19:2930–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp063.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Chen AC, Oathes DJ, Chang C, Bradley T, Zhou ZW, Williams LM, Etkin A. Causal interactions between fronto-parietal central executive and default-mode networks in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2013;110:19944–9. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1311772110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Bauer CCC, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Díaz JL, Pasaye EH, Barrios FA. From state-to-trait meditation: reconfiguration of central executive and default mode networks. eNeuro. 2019;6:ENEURO.0335-18.2019. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0335-18.2019.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Thermenos HW, Milanovic S, Tsuang MT, Faraone SV, McCarley RW, Seidman LJ. Hyperactivity and hyperconnectivity of the default network in schizophrenia and in first-degree relatives of persons with schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2009;106:1279–84. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809141106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Uddin LQ. Salience processing and insular cortical function and dysfunction. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16:55–61. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3857.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ham T, Leff A, de Boissezon X, Joffe A, Sharp DJ. Cognitive control and the salience network: an investigation of error processing and effective connectivity. J Neurosci. 2013;33:7091–8. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4692-12.2013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Menon V, Uddin LQ. Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function. Brain Struct Funct. 2010;214:655–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0262-0.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Uddin LQ, Supekar K, Amin H, Rykhlevskaia E, Nguyen DA, Greicius MD, Menon V. Dissociable connectivity within human angular gyrus and intraparietal sulcus: evidence from functional and structural connectivity. Cereb Cortex. 2010;20:2636–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhq011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Yantis S. The neural basis of selective attention: cortical sources and targets of attentional modulation. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2008;17:86–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00554.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Rushworth MF. Intention, choice, and the medial frontal cortex. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2008;1124:181–207. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1440.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Greicius MD, Srivastava G, Reiss AL, Menon V. Default-mode network activity distinguishes Alzheimer’s disease from healthy aging: evidence from functional MRI. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004;101:4637–42. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0308627101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Chand GB, Dhamala M. Interactions among the brain default-mode, salience, and central-executive networks during perceptual decision-making of moving dots. Brain Connect. 2016;6:249–54. https://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2015.0379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Sridharan D, Levitin DJ, Menon V. A critical role for the right fronto-insular cortex in switching between central-executive and default-mode networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:12569–74. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0800005105.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Hayden BY, Nair AC, McCoy AN, Platt ML. Posterior cingulate cortex mediates outcome-contingent allocation of behavior. Neuron. 2008;60:19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.012.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Utevsky AV, Smith DV, Huettel SA. Precuneus is a functional core of the default-mode network. J Neurosci. 2014;34:932–40. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4227-13.2014.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Fransson P, Marrelec G. The precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex plays a pivotal role in the default mode network: evidence from a partial correlation network analysis. Neuroimage. 2008;42:1178–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.05.059.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Cavanna AE, Trimble MR. The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates. Brain. 2006;129:564–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awl004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Maddock RJ, Garrett AS, Buonocore MH. Posterior cingulate cortex activation by emotional words: fMRI evidence from a valence decision task. Hum Brain Mapp. 2003;18:30–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.10075.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Maddock RJ, Garrett AS, Buonocore MH. Remembering familiar people: the posterior cingulate cortex and autobiographical memory retrieval. Neuroscience. 2001;104:667–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00108-7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Chand GB, Dhamala M. The salience network dynamics in perceptual decision-making. Neuroimage. 2016;134:85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Goulden N, Khusnulina A, Davis NJ, Bracewell RM, Bokde AL, McNulty JP, Mullins PG. The salience network is responsible for switching between the default mode network and the central executive network: replication from DCM. Neuroimage. 2014;99:180–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.052.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Kilpatrick LA, Suyenobu BY, Smith SR, Bueller JA, Goodman T, Creswell JD, Naliboff BD. Impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction training on intrinsic brain connectivity. Neuroimage. 2011;56:290–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Hasenkamp W, Barsalou LW. Effects of meditation experience on functional connectivity of distributed brain networks. Front Hum Neurosci. 2012;6:38. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00038.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  102. Taylor VA, Daneault V, Grant J, Scavone G, Breton E, Roffe-Vidal S, Beauregard M. Impact of meditation training on the default mode network during a restful state. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2013;8:4–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr087.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Froeliger B, Garland EL, Kozink RV, Modlin LA, Chen N-K, McClernon FJ, Sobin P. Meditation-state functional connectivity (msFC): strengthening of the dorsal attention network and beyond. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2012;2012:680407. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/680407.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. Brewer JA, Worhunsky PD, Gray JR, Tang YY, Weber J, Kober H. Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108:20254–9. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112029108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. Jao T, Li CW, Vértes PE, Wu CW, Achard S, Hsieh CH, Bullmore ET. Large-scale functional brain network reorganization during Taoist meditation. Brain Connect. 2016;6:9–24. https://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2014.0318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Dr Jiashu Zhang for his help in interpreting the results of this study and Zhizhong Zhang for his expert assistance with MRI data acquisition.

Funding

Not applicable.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Fuyu Wang and Tao Zhou contributed equally to this work

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurosurgery, The First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China

    Fuyu Wang, Tao Zhou, Peng Wang, Ze Li, Xianghui Meng & Jinli Jiang

Authors
  1. Fuyu Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tao Zhou
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peng Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ze Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xianghui Meng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jinli Jiang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

FW and TZ contributed equally to this work. FW wrote the paper, FW designed the study, FW and TZ analyzed the data and interpreted the experiments, TZ performed critical revision, PW and ZL performed data analysis, XM and JJ performed part of the experiments. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fuyu Wang.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The experimental protocol was established according to the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Human Ethics Committee of Chinese PLA General Hospital (S2014-096-01). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wang, F., Zhou, T., Wang, P. et al. Study of extravisual resting-state networks in pituitary adenoma patients with vision restoration. BMC Neurosci 23, 15 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-022-00701-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-022-00701-3

Keywords

  • Cross-modal plasticity
  • Default mode network
  • Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging
  • Salience network
  • Visual improvement

BMC Neuroscience

ISSN: 1471-2202

Contact us