Fig. 1

Valproic acid (VPA) exposure produces cytotoxicity in both skin and brain. Mid-trimester (12.5 days) pregnant BALB/c mice were injected with either VPA or saline vehicle (Veh). Tissue samples were assessed immediately after birth (< 1 day). A Generalized cutaneous scaling, with minimal inflammation was apparent at birth in VPA-exposed mice. B, C Cytotoxicity with minimal inflammation, evidenced as nuclear vacuolization in the outer epidermis of neonatal VPA-exposed mice (C, arrows). D Delayed weight gain in VPA-exposed mice. E, F Extensive toxicity, with ballooning degeneration of nuclei (arrows) in brains of VPA-exposed neonatal mice. G Quantitative assessment of barrier function as rates of transepidermal water loss (TEWL). H Leakage of toluidine blue into skin of 4-day-old VPA-exposed mice. B, C, E, F Mag bar = 20 μm